Freckles: Etiology, pathophysiology and therapeutic perspectives - A comprehensive review

Abstract

Freckles are benign pigmented macules influenced by genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. They result from increased melanin production in epidermal melanocytes, often triggered by UV exposure. This review summarizes current knowledge on the etiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis, conventional treatments, herbal therapies, and novel strategies for freckles. Emphasis is placed on integrating herbal formulations such as turmeric, liquorice, butterfly pea, and sunflower oil with conventional approaches for safe and effective management. Future directions, including peptide-based formulations, nanotechnology, and personalized therapies, are discussed to optimize long-term outcomes.