Multi-level adaptation to climate-induced water stress in Kenya’s highland counties: Household and institutional insights from kisii and nyamira

Abstract

This study examines multi-level adaptation to climate-induced water stress in Kisii and Nyamira Counties, Kenya, integrating both household and institutional perspectives. Using data from 393 households, key informant interviews, and policy document reviews, the research analyzes the range, prevalence, and determinants of adaptation measures employed to mitigate water scarcity and quality challenges associated with climate variability. Results reveal that households adopt multiple coping strategies such as rainwater harvesting (59.5%), community water sharing (60.1%), controlled household water use (19.1%), and shallow well digging (21.4%), with education, income, and institutional training emerging as key determinants of successful adaptation. Institutional actors like National Governments, like the Water Resources Authority (WRA), County Governments, Institutions of higher education, Non-Governmental Organizations(NGOs), and community-based organizations, such as Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs) and Community Forest Associations (CFAs) play central roles in supporting adaptation efforts; however, their effectiveness is constrained by inadequate resources, weak coordination, and limited policy enforcement. The findings underscore that adaptation to climate-induced water stress is multi-scalar, requiring both bottom-up household initiatives and top-down institutional interventions. Strengthening institutional coordination, promoting low-cost technologies, enhancing community participation, and integrating indigenous knowledge into policy and practice are essential for building long-term water resilience in Kenya’s highland ecosystems.