Tuberculosis at the human-animal interface: Epidemiology and control strategies: A review

Abstract

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global health threat affecting both humans and animals, particularly in regions where close interaction occurs at the human-animal interface. Members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC), especially Mycobacterium bovis, contribute significantly to the burden of zoonotic TB, presenting challenges for disease surveillance and control. This review synthesizes existing knowledge on the etiology, historical development, epidemiology, transmission dynamics, public health implications, and prevention strategies for TB at the human-animal interface within a One Health framework. The objective is to provide an integrated assessment of the disease across species and highlight persistent gaps that hinder effective control.A narrative review methodology was employed, drawing from peer-reviewed articles, international guidelines, and global health reports. Findings indicate that M. bovis continues to circulate in livestock, wildlife, and human populations, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where close contact with animals and consumption of unpasteurized milk remain common. Wildlife reservoirs such as badgers, deer, and wild boar complicate eradication efforts by perpetuating transmission cycles. In humans, M. bovis infections are clinically similar to those caused by M. tuberculosis, leading to diagnostic difficulties and underreporting. Socioeconomic factors, limited veterinary services, and inadequate surveillance systems further amplify the disease burden.Control strategies such as milk pasteurization, routine cattle testing, culling of infected animals, and wildlife management remain central but are insufficient in isolation. A One Health approach integrating veterinary, medical, and environmental interventions is essential for sustainable reduction of zoonotic TB. Future priorities include development of improved diagnostics, advancement of cattle vaccines, and enhancement of coordinated surveillance systems across species. Strengthening public health education and policy implementation remains critical to reducing transmission risks and safeguarding both human and animal health.