Socio-economic determinants of smallholder farmers' adoption of sustainable agricultural practices: A global review

Abstract

The adoption of sustainable agricultural practices by smallholder farmers is essential for achieving food security, climate resilience, and environmental protection. Yet adoption rates remain uneven and often low, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. This review synthesises recent empirical evidence on socio-economic determinants of adoption, drawing on studies of conservation agriculture, climate-smart agriculture, organic and natural farming, integrated pest management, and integrated farming systems. It focuses on farmer and household characteristics, farm structure, financial and market conditions, information and extension, and psychological and behavioural factors. Systematic reviews indicate that education, access to extension, credit, and cooperative membership consistently increase the probability of adoption, while land tenure insecurity, liquidity constraints, and risk aversion remain major barriers. The review pays particular attention to the Indian context, including recent studies on sustainable input use in paddy cultivation, conservation agriculture in rainfed regions, and large-scale programmes such as climate-resilient agriculture initiatives and natural farming missions. The paper concludes that socio-economic determinants interact with institutional and biophysical factors. That tailored policy strategies are required to address context-specific barriers while leveraging education, collective action, and digital innovation to accelerate sustainable adoption.