Phosphine resistance: Development, monitoring, strategies and alternatives for management in stored grain pests

Abstract

The resistance of stored-product pests in general and coleopterans in particular to phosphine fumigation is becoming a global concern which has put the viability and sustainability of phosphine in jeopardy. The problem of phosphine resistance has been aggravated over the past two decades mostly due to the lack of suitable alternatives matching to the major attributes of phosphine, including its low price, ease of application, proven effectiveness against a broad pest spectrum, compatibility with most storage conditions, and international acceptance as a residue- free treatment. In this review, we compile a broad overview of phosphine resistance with special emphasis on the genetic basis of resistance development, countering the resistance development, key management strategies and alternative fumigants that need to be addressed.