A review on antimicrobial resistance, diagnosis and an alternative approach

Abstract

Antibiotics are extensively used as therapeutic agents for the treatment of infectious diseases in humans and livestock. Penicillins, tetracyclines, sulphonamides, fluoroquinolones and cephalosporins are major antibiotic classes widely used in animal production. Antibiotic usage was highest in swine, chicken and cattle and extremely low in sheep. The use of antibiotics in extra-label use may pose a strong pressure on human, animal and soil microbiome leads to the emergence of antibiotic resistance and have a serious impact on human and animal health. The antimicrobial alternatives such as phage therapy, prebiotics, probiotics, metals and minerals, organic acids and essential oils may be used to treat the infections and increase immune response. Globally, antimicrobial resistance crisis may be controlled by the implementation of monitoring and surveillance programme for clinically important antimicrobial classes used in animals and human and assessment of antimicrobial resistant genes in animal products and environment, reduced use of antibiotics in animals by enhancing host resistance and decreased exposure to the infectious agent through hand sanitation.